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Languages

In computer science, after basic hardware, language comes first, before operating systems, applications, or anything else. One needs a language first, even if only machine language, before one can write any software at all.

There is a vast variety of programming languages, estimates run from 2,000 to 6,000. The situation is often likened to the many schisms of some religions, and sometimes disagreements and even fights occur among the faithful. Yet, all languages must adhere to the central unifying principles of computer science (even Intercal and Befunge), otherwise they couldn't work.

On this page, languages are arranged in three groups and levels: 1) Top: issues spanning multiple unrelated languages. 2) Middle: types or classes of languages. 3) Bottom: specific languages, with their own directory category.

Sites in Languages

The Retrocomputing Museum
Dedicated to programs that induce sensations that hover somewhere between nostalgia and nausea.The freaks, jokes, and fossils of computing history.
Introduction to Programming Languages
Book by Anthony A. Aaby.
An Introduction to Programming Languages
A page for people who know one language and are wondering about learning another.
Webopedia
Programming languages related terms.
Lambda the Ultimate
Programming Languages Weblog with news and discussion.

sub categories in Languages

ABC ABC
ADL ADL
Algol 60 Algol 60
APL APL
Awk Awk
Befunge Befunge
Bigwig Bigwig
Brainfuck Brainfuck
C++ C++
Cecil Cecil
Clarion Clarion
Clipper Clipper
Cobol Cobol
Cocoa Cocoa
Compiled Compiled
Concurrent Concurrent
Curl Curl
Database Database
Declarative Declarative
Directories Directories
E E
Eiffel Eiffel
Erlang Erlang
Forth Forth
FP FP
Functional Functional
Goedel Goedel
ICI ICI
IDL IDL
Interface Interface
Io Io
JavaScript JavaScript
LabVIEW LabVIEW
Language-OS Hybrids Language-OS Hybrids
Limbo Limbo
Logic-based Logic-based
m4 m4
Miranda Miranda
ML ML
Modula-3 Modula-3
Multiparadigm Multiparadigm
Oberon Oberon
Object-Oriented Object-Oriented
Obliq Obliq
Open Source Open Source
Pascal Pascal
PHP PHP
PL PL
Pliant Pliant
Postscript Postscript
Prograph Prograph
Proteus Proteus
REBOL REBOL
Regular Expressions Regular Expressions
Rigal Rigal
Ruby Ruby
SAS SAS
Scripting Scripting
Simkin Simkin
Sisal Sisal
Snobol Snobol
SQL SQL
T3X T3X
Tempo Tempo
TRAC TRAC
Turing Turing
Visual Basic Visual Basic
Visual FoxPro Visual FoxPro
Wirth Wirth
Yorick Yorick
Ada Ada
Aleph Aleph
Algol 68 Algol 68
Assembly Assembly
BASIC BASIC
BETA BETA
Blue Blue
C C
C-sharp C-sharp
CHILL CHILL
Clean Clean
CLU CLU
CobolScript CobolScript
Comparison and Review Comparison and Review
Component Pascal Component Pascal
Constraint Constraint
D D
Dataflow Dataflow
Delphi Delphi
Dylan Dylan
Education Education
ElastiC ElastiC
Euphoria Euphoria
Fortran Fortran
Frontier Frontier
Garbage Collected Garbage Collected
Haskell Haskell
Icon Icon
Intercal Intercal
Interpreted Interpreted
Java Java
Jovial Jovial
Lagoona Lagoona
Leda Leda
Lisp Lisp
Lua Lua
Mercury Mercury
Miva Miva
Modula-2 Modula-2
Moto Moto
Mumps Mumps
Obfuscated Obfuscated
Objective-C Objective-C
Occam Occam
Oz Oz
Perl Perl
Pike Pike
PL-SQL PL-SQL
POP-11 POP-11
Procedural Procedural
Prolog Prolog
Python Python
Reflective Reflective
Rexx Rexx
RPG RPG
S-Lang S-Lang
Sather Sather
SETL SETL
Simula Simula
Smalltalk Smalltalk
Specification Specification
Synchronous Synchronous
Tcl-Tk Tcl-Tk
TOM TOM
Transcript Transcript
Visual Visual
Visual DialogScript Visual DialogScript
Water Water
YAFL YAFL
Z Z

cross references

Computers : Education : Programming Computers : Education : Programming
Computers : Programming : Compilers Computers : Programming : Compilers
Computers : Programming : Methodologies Computers : Programming : Methodologies
Computers : Programming : Resources Computers : Programming : Resources
Computers : Software : Globalization Computers : Software : Globalization

other references

Computers : Data Formats : Markup Languages Computers : Data Formats : Markup Languages
Computers : Data Formats : Markup Languages : HTML Computers : Data Formats : Markup Languages : HTML
Computers : Data Formats : Markup Languages : SGML Computers : Data Formats : Markup Languages : SGML
Computers : Data Formats : Markup Languages : XML Computers : Data Formats : Markup Languages : XML
Computers : History : Languages Computers : History : Languages
Computers : Parallel Computing : Programming : Languages Computers : Parallel Computing : Programming : Languages
Computers : Programming : Component Frameworks : NET : Programming Languages Computers : Programming : Component Frameworks : NET : Programming Languages
Computers : Programming : Development Tools : Development Environments : PowerBuilder Computers : Programming : Development Tools : Development Environments : PowerBuilder
Computers : Programming : Languages : Lisp : Logo Computers : Programming : Languages : Lisp : Logo
Computers : Programming : Languages : Lisp : Scheme Computers : Programming : Languages : Lisp : Scheme
Computers : Programming : Languages : Miva Computers : Programming : Languages : Miva
Computers : Programming : Languages : ML : Caml Computers : Programming : Languages : ML : Caml
Computers : Programming : Languages : ML : Objective Caml Computers : Programming : Languages : ML : Objective Caml
Computers : Programming : Languages : Object-Oriented : Prototype-based Computers : Programming : Languages : Object-Oriented : Prototype-based
Computers : Programming : Languages : Procedural Computers : Programming : Languages : Procedural
Computers : Programming : Languages : Smalltalk : Bistro Computers : Programming : Languages : Smalltalk : Bistro
Computers : Programming : Languages : Smalltalk : Self Computers : Programming : Languages : Smalltalk : Self
Computers : Programming : Languages : Smalltalk : Squeak Computers : Programming : Languages : Smalltalk : Squeak
Computers : Programming : Languages : Tcl-Tk : XOTcl Computers : Programming : Languages : Tcl-Tk : XOTcl
Computers : Programming : Languages : Visual Basic : VBScript Computers : Programming : Languages : Visual Basic : VBScript
Computers : Programming : Methodologies : Modeling Languages : Unified Modeling Language Computers : Programming : Methodologies : Modeling Languages : Unified Modeling Language
Computers : Software : Operating Systems : x86 : DOS : Programming : Languages : Batch Computers : Software : Operating Systems : x86 : DOS : Programming : Languages : Batch
Computers : Software : Typesetting : TeX Computers : Software : Typesetting : TeX
Computers : Systems : Apple : Macintosh : Development : Languages : HyperCard Computers : Systems : Apple : Macintosh : Development : Languages : HyperCard
Computers : Systems : Apple : Macintosh : Development : Languages : Scripting : AppleScript Computers : Systems : Apple : Macintosh : Development : Languages : Scripting : AppleScript
Science : Math : Software : Mathematica Science : Math : Software : Mathematica
Science : Math : Software : MATLAB Science : Math : Software : MATLAB
Science : Technology : Electronics : Design : Hardware Description Languages Science : Technology : Electronics : Design : Hardware Description Languages
Science : Technology : Electronics : Design : Hardware Description Languages : Verilog Science : Technology : Electronics : Design : Hardware Description Languages : Verilog
Science : Technology : Electronics : Design : Hardware Description Languages : VHDL Science : Technology : Electronics : Design : Hardware Description Languages : VHDL

this category in other languages

Llenguatges de programació Catalan : Llenguatges de programació
語言 Chinese : 語言
Jazyky Czech : Jazyky
Sprog Danish : Sprog
زبان‌ها Farsi : زبان‌ها
Kielet Finnish : Kielet
Langages French : Langages
Sprachen German : Sprachen
言語 Japanese : 言語
프로그래밍 언어 Korean : 프로그래밍 언어
Języki Polish : Języki
Языки Russian : Языки
Jazyky Slovak : Jazyky
Lenguajes Spanish : Lenguajes
Språk Swedish : Språk
Languages  -  Directory Languages  -  Directory Languages  -  Directory Languages  -  Directory